Americanos Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Americanos - Essay Example The forces that inculcated a desire in the Americans to gain independence, the causes of conflicts among troops, and the consent of leaders have all been well captured in the book. â€Å"Chasteen's book joins a long list of highly regarded and influential English-language surveys of the independence period† (Blanchard). Summary: The book explains how the Portugese and Spanish colonies struggled to gain independence in America. In the start of 19th century, Napoleon conquered Portugal and Spain. This event in Europe brought about many consequences throughout the world. The event sparked a whole range of revolutions everywhere in the Portugese and Spanish empires in the New World. The world history underwent an altogether turn. The independence wars ultimately led to the development of 19 independent republics in America. Some of the most well known leaders of the times like Father Hidalgo, Father Morelos, and Bernardo O'Higgins have been identified along with some not so well k nown women like Manuela Saenz, Juana Azurduy, and Leona Vicario that had played important roles in the overall independence movement. It has been discussed in the book that by the time the wars neared end, the Latin American independence leaders acknowledged the classical liberal principles. In particular, the popular principles of self-determination and sovereignty were embraced. The global reach of values of the Western politics expanded permanently as a result of it. In the years that preceded the independence, the whole colonial society was categorized on the basis of caste. There were europeos, mestizos, americanos, pardos, Indians and blacks. Among them, the europeos were considered as the â€Å"most pure† group. The term, â€Å"Americano† got redefined after huge struggle so as to include non-europeo people. To define America's rainbow of castes as the Americano people recognized the truth on the ground, but it also created a new truth, an airy but potent abstra ction. That abstraction was the Sovereign People, who deserved nothing less than a government of, by, and for the people. (Chasteen 2). The redefinition of americanos went against Spansih colonialists. Many new nations also got influenced in Latin America because of that, and adopted a republican form that was equipped with all trappings of the liberal rule. That is why today, a vast majority of the oldest functioning republics of the world are from Latin America, and are still caught in disturbed political legacy since their birth. Critical analysis: Chasteen has adequately synthesized all major events and identified all key individuals that had played an important role in the wars of independence between 1805-1830. The chief battles and events have been described quite straightforwardly. Figures have been accompanied with biographical information that make it a colorful and balanced portrayal of history. Chasteen has fundamentally made use of secondary sources. Therefore, the book basically offers a makeup of existing scholarship and can not be regarded as an â€Å"addition† to the existing body of literature. However, Americanos is undoubtedly, a valuable addition to the existing scholarship of the history of Latin America. The book mostly presents the state of the art awareness in a clear manner. There are no groundbreaking advances or realization of

Comparing the Herakles Myth with Joseph Campbells Hero Myth List Essay Example for Free

Comparing the Herakles Myth with Joseph Campbells Hero Myth List Essay Karen Wagner World Mythology September 27th 2012 Essay #1 Herakles, or more commonly known as Hercules according to Disney is probably one of the most popular myths people have seen or heard, but could Herakles’ myth follow Joseph Campbell’s Hero myth list. Carl Jung defined an archetype myth or Jungian archetype as a pattern of thought that can be translated to â€Å"worldwide parallels† (â€Å"The Columbian Encyclopedia†) that the human race experiences as a culture or an individual. The myth of Herakles includes parts that compare to the Hero Archetype, but there are also parts that do not fit the archetype at all. Joseph Campbell’s list of myths for the common hero includes a list that does and does not relate to the story of Herakles. Herakles’ journey begins from the shared birth from his mother Alcmena, father Zeus and half-brother Iphikles. Hera (Zeus’ wife) decides to take revenge because of the affair Zeus had with Alcmena for Herakles. One the morning Herakles was supposed to be born Zeus had made a previous oath stating the son of his bloodline through Pereus who was born that morning would rule Mycenae. Hera made sure Zeus swore to this and sent down the goddess of childbirth Eileithuia to slow the birthing process. A sly serving girl named Galanthis had told the goddess of childbirth that Alcmena had her twins, once Eileithuia’s guard was down and so was her spell. Alcmena bore twins and Herakles was not the first born, one was the son of Amphitryon and the other Zeus. Hera decides to take action by putting snakes in the twins’ crib in hopes to â€Å"destroy Zeus’ latest offspring† (Martin 148), while Iphikles only wailed, Herakles decided to strangle both snakes to death, identifying the true son of Zeus. Amphitryon stated, â€Å"well, that one’s not my boy† (Martin 148). Herakles grew up quickly, learning his new found strength through his human father and other relatives. His first official voluntarily task was to eliminate the lion with impenetrable hide from Mt. Kithairon. Once the beast was defeated, Herakles skinned the lion and wore his mane and head as a trophy and as a form of protection (Martin 153). Herakles continued doing many labors for different people throughout a large portion of his life; he lay with many women, and marries a few as well. Herakles did some wrong doings and towards the end of his mortal life he dies and becomes immoral, forever to live on in myth. Joseph Campbell’s monomyth list for mythological adventures magnifies the formula described in the rites of passage: Departure—initiation—return. Campbell’s list for the hero archetype can be compared to Herakles, while other parts do the opposite. The first stage of the hero’s’ journey is their birth; Campbell goes into explaining that the birth involves â€Å"fabulous circumstances surrounding conception, birth, and childhood† (Campbell). Herakles’ birth could be seen under fabulous circumstances, an affair, another child, and two dead snakes on the first night; Campbell’s second stage is the â€Å"Call to Adventure† (Campbell), Herakles whilst working on his human father’s cattle ranch heard news of a lion killing the family cows, he volunteers to rid the beast and is successful in the end. Herakles had helpers throughout his journeys, such as Apollo’s grandson Eurytos teaching him archery (Martin 150) or Atlas assisting Herakles in getting the Golden Apples as one of his labors, but not from a specific being or person alone. This being a piece of the myth that doesn’t exactly fit into Campbell’s list but can still compare. Campbell’s fourth entry on the list â€Å"Crossing the Threshold† somewhat relates to Herakles’ story in that he does travel 30 days to defeat the mother of all lions, another with impenetrable hide. Campbell’s crossing the threshold entry explains that the hero must undergo a task or event that takes the hero from everyday life into the â€Å"world of adventure† (Campbell); this could be something small from traveling to a cave or traveling for 30 days. One of the major parts of the myth of Herkales is his love for labors he provides for his people, this definitely relates to Campbell’s work, in that his number five explains the tests the hero must go through, involving a series of monsters and traveling to different worlds and each conquered task increases said hero’s ability to overcome even stronger encounters he will face. Campbell’s number six on his list goes into the helpers the hero will encounter through his journey, this also relates to Herakles. There were parts in his myth where Herakles needed assistance, for example when Herakles wanted to get the golden apples as one of his labors, he asked Atlas to go and he would hold up the heavens until he returned, even though Herakles sort of deceived Atlas in the end, he was still of assistance to the hero. The climax and final battle of Herakles involved his attempt at sacrifice and a struggle to continue living. He was given a cloak that was accidentally poisoned by his wife Deianeira with a previous enemies’ blood that mixed in with the blood he dipped his arrows from one of his labors. The cloak began to tighten around the hero and poison him; he sought revenge on his wife to discover she already killed herself in learning what she had done. Herakles’ myth doesn’t have a happy ending like Campbell’s list basically says in 9, 10, and 11, Herakles’ dies to live on forever immorally, or in this case actually passed but his fame lives on, his story is continued being told and he is recognized as a Greek hero, without any sort of â€Å"elixir† Campbell mentioned in his list, feasting with the gods and his god parents, Zeus and Hera (Martin 179), the mother who was trying to rid him from the beginning. Campbell’s list is to describe how a hero myth translates to actual events and situations people encounter in their lives while growing up, there is an underlying meaning to each situation that happens to the hero. While some parts did relate to Campbell’s list, overall Herakles’ myth strays away from following his list, although there are parts that do relate, the myth is still completely different from Campbell’s interpretation and Jung’s archetype definition, giving Herakles his own myth and his own journey that’s not as cliche from the rest of the myths in the world.

Overcoming Cultural Differences And Understanding Organisation Culture Commerce Essay

Overcoming Cultural Differences And Understanding Organisation Culture Commerce Essay What is culture? Culture is something you belong to. Here a few definitions of the word culture. Geertz describes culture as a system of shared meaning, (Griffin, 2003, p. 273), Pancanowsky said culture is not something a organization has, a culture is something an organization is. (Griffin, 2003, p. 273) Philipesen describes culture as a socially constructed and historically transmitted pattern of symbols, meanings, premises, and rules.(Griffin, 2003, p.420). In this case study EUROCOM Systems is a German organization and SOFTCOM is an IT organization in New Zealand.EUROCOM Systems is taking over SOFTCOM. According to the above definitions about culture, we can see that EUROCOM Systems and SOFTCOM are two different types of organizations with two different cultures. Firstly their languages are different, and also the German organization has a very traditional management style. Their staff are expected to wear traditional business suits and ties and keep to fixed daily working hours. The New Zealand organization has an easygoing and relaxed atmosphere, including a dress code and flexible working hours that suit their customers. There are also other problems that could happen in the new organization. As the case study mentions that EUROCOM will send their own managers to New Zealand. These managers have to face a new environment, so could have a lot of anxiety. During the takeover, it will be two different countries with different cultures merging together; obviously this could cause culture conflict. How can these cultural differences be overcome? The above provides two hypotheses, using some theories to help to achieve the hypotheses. Agenda-Setting Theory Maxwell McCombs Donald Shaws Agenda Setting Theory uses framing where they select a feature and put this into the mind of people making them think about it. For example, SOFTCOMs flexible working hours change to fixed daily working hours. If at lunch time or outside working hours, the customers has some software problems needing speciality help, who can serve them to figure out the problems. Does the customer have to wait until the speciality staff are back from lunch? No, no one has the patience when they have a problem. They want the company solve the problem at once. As no one can run a business without customers, SOFTCOM should put those points to frame the cultural differences, and let EUROCOM think about by changing SOFTCOM culture it may cause many problems, and even lose customers. Social Penetration Theory Cultural approach to organization Theory Social Penetration Theory is when the onion is peeled by layer the two nationalities will soon be friends and appreciate each other. (Griffin, 2003, p. 133) Once they penetrate well below the surface, the Germans and New Zealanders will become close. Story and ritual (Using the metaphor) can help to understand an organization culture. So in this case, SOFTCOM can tell some stories through ritual that will help EUOROCOM Managers to understand SOFTCOM culture. Below is an provide an example combining these two theories. When the managers of EUORCOM come to New Zealander at first, they might feel uncomfortable and not know what to say to SOFTCOM staff, but after a few days they will start to know each other. Also SOFTCOM can provide some rituals such as a party or a BBQ, and by corporate stories, collegial stories or personal story telling increase their relationships and help them understand the SOFTCOM culture. Understanding organization culture Communication theories: Information Systems Approach to Organisations Cultural Approach to Organizations Face-Negotiation Theory Narrative Paradigm Theory From the case study, it seems that SOFTCOM Systems is a culture system and belongs to Individualistic culture. EUOROCOM Systems is an information system and belongs to collectivistic culture. Below are some theories to identify the statement, and also will provide a strategy for SOFTCOM to keep the unique features of the organisation. Information Systems Approach to Organisations Theory According to Weicks Information Systems Approach to Organisations theory, every organisation as living organizations that must constantly adapt to changing environment in order to stay alive. (Griffin, 2003, p. 259). Weick talks about the information and how it relates to the organisation, whereas organisation systems depend on the information system. Weick considers in his theory the hierarchy structural of the organisation. Every employee is put on different levels of positions. The boss is at the top, flows down to the associate managers, along the path to the next level will be the workers at the lower level. From this hierarchy structural, Weick forms up the chain-of-command lines of communication. Information is pushed down from the top, where the boss is, down to his associates and from the associates to the workers below. Information flows in the organisation. Cultural Approach to Organisation Theory Geertz and Pacanowskys theory of the Cultural Approach to Organisation base on Information Systems Approach to Organisations theory, but they state that culture is not something that an organisation has; culture is something an organisation is. Geertz describes culture as a system of shared meaning, (Griffin, 2003, p. 273), From the above explanations of the two theories, we can see EUOROCOM is an information system, because the boss at top level pushes information down to the next level associates, and to the workers. The workers do not have a chance to raise opinions to the managers. As the case study said the EUOROCOM organization has a very conservative management style. SOFTCOM is a culture system. As EUOROCOM the boss from the top pushes the information to the next level and to the workers. But SOFTCOM have effective communication and a shared meaning about the information. The case study says SOFTCOM has an easygoing relaxed atmosphere, which is why SOFTCOM is an innovative and creative software development. Face-Negotiation Theory According to Ting-Toomeys Face- Negotiation theory, she distinguishes national cultures within collectivistic and individualistic categories. (Griffin, 2003, p. 436). Collectivistic culture means where people identify with a larger group loyalty thus acting from a We-identity. The collectivistic culture has a high context communication or message. Individualistic culture means where people look out for themselves and their immediate families thus acting from an I-identity. The Individualistic culture has a low context communication Using these definitions we can see that EUOROCOM is a Collectivistic culture, because the EUOROCOM System values collective needs and goals over individual needs and goals. In EUOROCOM, staff behaviour is controlled by the company, for example, the EUOROCOM System boss asked the SOFTCOM staff to wear traditional business suits and ties everyday, and they had no choice, but to do it no matter whether they want to it or not. EUOROCOM has a very high context on sending messages from their boss to staff. The power gap between the boss at the top and his associates below is wide. It is hard for the worker to communicate their thoughts to the top level. The SOFTCOM system is an individualistic culture; because SOFTCOM treat every person as unique. SOFTCOM has a very low context communication between their boss and staff. Its a narrow hierarchy structure. The power gap between the boss at the top level and his associates below (the workers of the organisation) is narrow. In other words, communication between the workers is easy and they help each other, not like the high context communication staff of EUOROCOM Systems. So their company is conducive to more innovation than EUOROCOM. How can the take over be effective? In the case study EUOROCOM will create a more disciplined culture in the new organization which means the Germans will run the merged organisation to their collectivistic culture. How could the New Zealanders persuade the Germans not take away the unique features of SOFTCOM? Here using narrative paradigm theory could persuade EUOROCOM to keep the SOFTCOM system, so that SOFTCOM will not lose the unique features of the organization. Narrative Paradigm Theory Using Walter Fishers theory Narrative Paradigm would be effective. Fisher says that people are storytelling animals and to reason to others we use stories. SOFTCOM could persuade the Germans and point out that the organisation is living in its own culture and they do their own work according to the features of the culture of their organisation and their effect on the society. So they can use their customers to tell a story to EUOROCOM to persuade the Germans to confirm the takeover without taking away their unique features. Customers might say they are familiar with the service that SOFTCOM gives them because SOFTCOM serve them on their own way. If EUOROCOM takes that away, loss of customers could turn out to be true which EUOROCOM would not want to happen for the sake of the organisation.

Rock n Roll & 20th Century Culture Essay -- essays research papers fc

Rock ‘n’ roll and 20th Century Culture   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Philip Ennis, rock ‘n’ roll emerged from the convergence of social transformations which resulted from World War II (Ryan 927). Despite its pop culture origins, rock music is arguably one of the strongest cultural factors to develop in this century. Artists such as Lennon, McCartney and Dylan defined the emotions of a generation and, in the last decade, it as even been acknowledged by members of the establishment which it hoped to change as a major influence in the country. In order to understand how rock went from a sign of rebellion to a cultural icon, it is necessary to understand where it came from.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Albert Murray, the African-American musical tradition is â€Å"fundamentally stoical yet affirmative in spirit† (Star 3). Through the medium of the blues, African-Americans expressed a resilience of spirit which refused to be crippled by either poverty or racism. It is through music that the energies and dexterities of black American life are sounded and expressed (39). For the black culture in this country, the music of Basie or Ellington expressed a â€Å"wideawake, forward-tending† rhythm that one can not only dance to but live by (Star 39).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although he later denied that he ever said it, Sam Phillips-the man who discovered Elvis Presley-is reputed to have said, â€Å"if I could find a white man who had the Negro sound the Negro feel, I could make a billion dollars† (Decurtis 78). Certain radio stations would not play the work of black artists in the segregated America of the 1950s. But, nevertheless, rock ‘n’ roll was an art form created by African-Americans. Little Richard, whose songs â€Å"Tutti Fruitti† and â€Å"Long Tall Sally† became hits only after white-bread versions were made by Pat Boone, said, â€Å"It started out as rhythm and blues† (Decurtis 78).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through Elvis Presley, rock ‘n’ roll changed the face of American music, and influenced a whole generation’s political philosophy. Composer Leonard Berstein once said, â€Å"He introduced the beat to everything and changed everything-music, language, clothes; it’s a whole new social revolution-the 60s come from it† (Wattenberg 6B). To his credit, Elvis embraced rhythm and blues not as a from to be imitated, but as a form to honored and interprete... ...  to American History. New   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  York: Houghton Mifflin   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Co. Goodman, Dean. â€Å"Dylan fans get tangled up in academic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  views,† Reuters (1998):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  February, p. PG. Harris, James F. â€Å"Listen to the music: the meaning of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  classic rock,† The World & I, Vol.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  11, 12 Ed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (1996): December, pp. 306. Ryan, John. â€Å"The Seventh Stream: The emergency of rock n   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  roll in American popular   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  music,† (Book reviews)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Social Forces (1994): March, p. 927. Star, Alexander. â€Å"Hole in Our Soul: The Loss of Beauty and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Meaning in American Popular   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Music† (book reviews) The   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  New Republic, Vol. 210. (1994): May, pp. 39-42. Wattenberg, Daniel. â€Å"Elvis as force for social change has   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  sadly been forgotten,† Rocky   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mountain News. (1997):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  August, pp. 6B.

Multi-faceted character Essay

In Shakespeare’s â€Å"The Tempest†, Prospero has been represented variously as a good, caring man or as a manipulating, devious â€Å"puppeteer†. Compare and contrast how he has been represented and make your conclusion as to what kind of character Prospero actually is. A-Prospero, the protagonist of Shakespeare’s â€Å"Tempest†, has been variously presented as a kind, wise man as well as an uncaring, power hungry tyrant. A very real and multifaceted character with plenty of grey shades, Prospero has been seen as some as a manifestation of the play writer himself. I believe that, although Prospero has his faults, all his seemingly callous actions are directed towards a happy ending for every one. The best side of his personality is reserved for his daughter, Miranda. Though he is, at times, domineering towards her – (â€Å"Hence! Hang not on my garments! â€Å") – he loves her deeply. He tells her that he done ‘nothing but in care of her’, and all his actions are for her benefit ad to secure her future. He calls her a ‘cherubin’ and uses various terms of endearment for her – ‘wench’ – which bring out his love for her. However, Prospero also ‘meddles’ a lot with his daughter’s emotions. She is led to fall in love with Ferdinand, and Prospero’s comments, â€Å"It goes on, I see† shows that the relationship is all part of his master plan. He spies on her clandestine meeting with Ferdinand, and he is, often, a puppet master and she is his puppet, docile and obedient. This underlines the control he has over her, and his lust for power, but he is redeemed by the fact that he is doing it all for her good, after all, ‘the end justifies the means’. His test for Ferdinand is because Elizabethan romantic convention holds that a man’s love must be proved to be true through feats of tests. Towards his estranged brother, Antonio, and his companions, Prospero is less kind. He subjects them to mental torture by conjuring a violent tempest, leading them to believe they are ship wrecked. He is portrayed as a master puppeteer manipulating his puppets as he watches the company blunder about the island. But however sinister his attitude was, the fact remained that Prospero instructed Ariel to keep them ‘unharmed’. His frequent praise of Gonzalo, ‘honest old lord’ shows the audience that he does not really intend any malice. He did not want to use physical violence, even though it could be justified by the cruel actions of Antonio. Even though Antonio is a thoroughly ‘bad’ character, Prospero’s lack of violence redeems him to the audience. At the end of the play, Prospero forgives all his misdeed that had taken place and it is this forgiveness that labels him as a kind wise man. The only time Prospero shows a truly ugly side to his character is when he deals with Caliban. He hurls epithets such as ‘tortoise’ and ‘earth’ to him and inflicts him with ‘cramps’ and ‘side stitches’. Caliban terror on seeing Stephano shows the fear instilled in him by Prospero’s spirits. Prospero’s actions towards Caliban are also, however, justified. Caliban’s attempted rape of Miranda and his repulsive desire to ‘people the island with Calibans’ rightly earns a harsh punishment from Prospero. The only unjustified act of Prospero is that he seems to put too much stock by Caliban’s birth and appearance. He calls him a ‘freckled whelp’, ‘hag born’. But even here, the prevailing Elizabethan belief was that anyone so misshapen was evil and deserved to be treated as such. Towards his other servant, the ‘airy’ and ‘light’ Ariel, Prospero is much kinder. He frequently calls her a ‘brave spirit’ and ‘my tricksy Ariel’, using possessive pronouns to signal acceptance and pride. The only time he is angry with Ariel is when the spirit demand its freedom, just when Prospero’s master plan is about to unfold. He is understandably angry: she is the key to a plan he has waited twelve years to operate and it is an opportunity not be given again. Prospero is a man who is multi-faceted and perhaps that is why he is so human. Though he has shades of grey, he is essentially a good man, who has been usurped of his dukedom. Shakespeare realised that Prospero was dealing with great evil, and could not afford to be too good and therefore nai ve. He had to be written as a firm, stern man who knew what he wanted and how to achieve it. Prospero may have manipulated his daughter, but only to restore her future and her status. He is callous to Ariel, but promises to set it free. He leads the company all over the island, but reunites them in the end. ‘All’s well that ends well’ and Prospero delivers, restoring his dukedom, marrying the lovers and ensuring happy endings.

The British Empire and International Affairs

The British Empire and International Affairs Even before the American revolutionary war, which occurred from 1756-1763, Britain had already begun maintaining its global openness. Great Britain began reducing its trade barriers during the 1820s. Its international supremacy rose during this time.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The British Empire and International Affairs specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Even though, Britain lost most of its colonies during the American Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, its economic policies rose above the United States as well as other European powers in the international affairs (O’Brien Clesse 2002, p.352). In fact, the economic liberalization policies made it possible for Britain to maintain supremacy in the international affairs (Lance Huttenback, 1986). Hegemony can be described as the liberalization of international economic and financial systems. Conventionally, the term was used to describe the imperial euphem ism. It was used to describe the role of a leader of the economic unions or an alliance primarily formed for economic reasons (O’Brien Clesse 2002, p.321). The major difference between hegemony and empire is that empires have absolute authority over the subjects. They control economic, political, and social well being of the subjects. In contrast, hegemonic powers do not go beyond borders. They majorly concentrate on the provision of international public goods (O’Brien Clesse 2002, 321). The major question is how Britain managed to maintain its hegemonic powers even after the cessation of most of its colonies. That is, after the American Revolution and the Napoleonic wars. Britain lost these wars simply because of the economic constraints experienced in both debt and resources. However, the empire had good infrastructural facilities. The loyalty in most colonies were reasonably sound and stable (Bobbitt, 2003). During the American Revolution, a majority of the coloni es maintained their loyalty to Great Britain. In addition, most colonies that were annexed appeared to be in the political and economic disarray. In fact, these colonies were not unified. The colonies’ governments were largely economic and political impotent to have total control over the world in terms of economic and political affairs (Bobbitt, 2003). The result was that Britain maintained their economic supremacy and political influence through alliances with its former colonies. America later came to have control over the international affairs. However, their relationship with Britain still suggested the role Britain played in the international affairs (Lance Huttenback, 1986).Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The way Britain maintained its control over the international affairs was based on the intellectual change in commercial policies that took pl ace immediately after the Napoleonic wars (Paul, 1989). In other words, Britain changed its economic policy from the mercantilist foreign economic policy to the revolutionary laissez-faire economic liberalism initiated by Adam Smith. This new trade policy played a crucial role in shaping the Britain hegemonic powers. This was after the loss of the American colonies and most of the European colonies during the Napoleonic wars. According to various scholars, Britain did not start pursuing its economic openness until the eighteen twenties (Lance Huttenback, 1986). However, this pursuit contributed largely to its current achievement in the control of the international affairs. In fact, Great Britain started to liberalize its economic policies during the seventeen eighties. This was after its powers were under constant threat. Britain was operating in a hostile and multi-polar system. It was the time when Britain gave up its control over most European and American colonies. However, it was left with minimal control over the most powerful colonies. The Britain thus sought for economic openness and cordial political relations. These were meant to foster its international control (Lance Huttenback, 1986). Besides, Britain took advantage of the political and economic instability in most of the relinquished colonies to have control over most of its affairs. The Britain’s economic policies shifted towards free trade. It controlled the structure of interests, key institutions as well as powers both at the domestic and international levels (Fareed, 2007). However, the interest in the control of most institutions undermined the country’s commercial strategies during this period. Nevertheless, Britain had many economic strategies to choose from as it continued to pursue power. Britain hegemonic shift during the American Revolution depended on the influence of its enterprising intellectual such as Adam Smith. According to literature, Adam Smith predicted that mercantilism brought about conflicts (Fareed, 2007). During this time, Shelburne, a leading member of British parliament, salvaged the opposition support. The intention was to control the government, grant independence to American colonies, and reform the British economic policy (Paul, 1989). At first, Shelburne embraced the mercantile-economic system. The belief was that the system was the best to maintain the British Empire. He emphatically argued that the commercial regulations were the solutions to the American Revolution. This was contrary to the belief of most intellectuals such as Adam Smith. Smith believed that mercantile was the cause of constant conflicts that the empire was experiencing (Paul, 1989).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The British Empire and International Affairs specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nevertheless, his constant engagement with the enterprising intellectuals made him change his mind . Moreover, the public was in full support of the free trade policies. For instance, the Ireland uprising appeared to be in full support of the free trade. This made Shelburne change his assumption. When he later became the prime minister, he planned the post war resolution to exemplify Smith’s predictions (O’Brien Clesse 2002, p.359). Shelburne provided the American independence, embraced peace for Europe, and advocated for trade liberalization. Though his tenure was short, the initiatives he put in place provided a foundation for the liberalized economic reforms that ensured Britain’s perpetual control over the world affairs. The process in which Britain kept its hegemony over the years did not explain the importance of the colonies as well as the wars that Britain fought during these periods. The American colonies were both beneficial and a burden to the British government (O’Brien Clesse 2002, p.354). However, the colonies were more of a burden to B ritain than the benefit they brought with them. In the first instance, the colonies were expensive to maintain even though the British government would economically benefit in terms of resources and trade. In addition, the taxes that Britain was getting from these colonies were enormous. Nevertheless, the taxes could not support the colonies both administratively and militarily. As a result, Britain ran into debts as well as the economic downturn (Fareed 2007, p.162). This was coupled with the economic policy of control that did not allow free enterprising and trade. The fear that was expressed by the American Revolution supporters confirmed the suspicion that most of the American radical leaders had on the British government. Besides, most of the Americans were used to the substantial level of freedom and self-government (Lance Huttenback, 1986). The French experience instilled some fear in most revolutionary leaders. They decided to rail against the attempts by the British govern ments to impose taxes and pay the imperial defense costs. The costs were in the form of assorted taxes and duties. The revolutionary leaders also rejected the attempts by the colonial government. This government wanted to impose mercantilist economic regulations. It also wanted to put the colonial legislators second after that of London.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The American resistance led to the revolution and the fall of the British control in thirteen colonies. Even though Britain managed to maintain control over several states, the Americans did not surrender to the pressure. Immediately after the Saratoga victory, in seventeen seventy-seven, the civil war rocked the empire. Every colony in the empire agitated for economic and political freedom (Bobbitt, 2003). The Dutch, French, and Spain all went against the empire. The British Empire became diplomatically isolated for the first time in centuries. Dutch, French, and Spain revolutions led to the Napoleonic wars while the American revolt led to the American Revolution. After seven years, the thirteen colonies were granted independence at the treaty of Paris. The European colonies however continued with their civil wars (Bobbitt, 2003). In the wake of these revolutions, the British government reexamined most of the institutions. The economic reforms were proposed and passed in seventeen eighty-two. These economic reforms had bylaws that reduced the patronage powers of the king and his ministers (Lance Huttenback, 1986). However, major economic reforms came during the Shelburne time. The revolution was essential for most of the reforms as well as new policies that ensured the continued control of the world affairs. The Dutch, French, and Spain revolutions later merged into Napoleonic wars. This was when Napoleon Bonaparte took control over the French revolutionary government. During the Napoleonic wars, there was a boom in farm production in Britain and some industries. Although there was a boom in both the farm and industrial production, it led to the rise in inflation. The income rates lagged far behind the market prices (Lance Huttenback, 1986). The English central bank was forced to suspend the payment of gold for paper currency, and the income tax was imposed for the first time. After the annexation of Spain and Dutch as well as the defeat of Napoleon, Britai n announced that, it had no interest in the control of Europe and America. The revolution led to the moderation of the government economic policies. The most relevant thing was the abolition of the slave trade and the reduction in barriers to the formation of labor unions. The cessation was not only fought to free the Americans, but was also intended to reduce some of the most dangerous commerce such as the slave trade. Fair trade was encouraged since the trade barriers were reduced (Lance Huttenback, 1986). The successive governments embarked on rebuilding the economic torn caused by several wars, inflation, and low productivity. The economic policies, which embraced patronage system, were shelved. Nevertheless, the economic policies that promoted free trade were embraced. These wars played critical roles in shaping the British economic shift that led to its continued control over the universal dealings (O’Brien Clesse 2002, p.354). The economic and foreign policies majorl y stemmed from the experiences witnessed during the American Revolution and the Napoleonic wars. However, the reforms that shaped the subsequent hegemony of the British governments did not result from the military defeat during the American Revolution. In conclusion, the British hegemony occurred because of the influence of enterprising intellectuals, the economic conditions in Britain, as well as the situation in other colonies. The changes that took place immediately after the revolution and the Napoleonic wars prompted the British governments to change its policies. While the empire gave up control over some of its colonies, it had to find a way of continuous control over these states. References Bobbitt, P 2003, The shield of Achilles: war, peace, and course of history, Penguin Adult, New York. Fareed, Z 2007, The Future of freedom: illiberal democracy at home and abroad, W. W. Norton, New York. Lance, DE Huttenback, RA 1986, Mammon and the pursuit of empire: the political econ omy of British imperialism, 1860 – 1912, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. O’Brien, PK Clesse, A 2002, Two hegemonies: Britain 1846 – 1914 and the United States 1941 – 2001, Ashgate, Aldershot, Burlington. Paul, K 1989, The rise and fall of the great powers: economic change and military conflict from 1500 to 2000, Vintage Books, New York, NY.

The structure of UK tour operations market Essay Example

The structure of UK tour operations market Essay Example The structure of UK tour operations market Essay The structure of UK tour operations market Essay 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Terms of reference This report is the result of an investigation on the UK outbound tour operating market for Cole Venture Capital. The objective of this report is to give a clearer understanding of the structure of UK tour operations market and give recommendations on whether investment in such industry will be profitable for Cole Venture Capital. 2.0 Historical Review 2.1 Developments 1945-1960 Overseas travelling increased after World War Two. This was due to social, economical and technological improvements of their respective environment. The first air tour was credited to Vladmir Raitz whose Horizon Holidays bought surplus Douglas Dakota troop carrying aircraft from the army to carry 32 holiday makers on a trip to Corsica in 1950 (Yale 1995). The availability of cheap transport plus the lower accommodation and food costs in Spain and other Mediterranean countries made foreign holidays affordable to a generation emerging from war-time austerity and looking to enjoy the social equality and economic prosperity promised by governments of the era (Holloway 2002). 2.1.1 Development 1960s to 1980s The removal of visa requirements and the gradual easing of exchange controls encouraged further growth of foreign travel. The demand for travelling was largely met through inclusive tours rather than independent travel. This was because British people liked security of booking holidays from tour operators because the tour operators reduced the fear of the three Fs- flying, foreigners and foreign food (Yale 1995). Technological development continued to shape the tourism business. The introduction of Boeing 747 making it possible to travel in less time, made travelling more appealing (Yale 1995). Other factors, which influenced this growth, were the tour operators three main competitive advantages, which are low price due to bulk purchase of flights and hotels, quality assurance of well-known brand, and convenience booking through a local travel agent (Sharpley 2002). 2.1.2 Major developments 1980s to 2000 With the emergence of Thompson (Now TUI UK) as market leader, companies were adopting price led competitive strategies as consumers were expecting lower price. Thompson used its financial strength to pursue a strategy to gain market shares through cost leadership (Porter 1980 in Sharpley 2002). One of Thompsons major strength is that it is a vertically integrated company. Thompson owns the charter airline Britannia as well as retail chain Lunn Polly. Vertical integration has given Thompson more bargaining power with suppliers (Sharpley 2002). As a result of Thompsons tactics smaller operators were driven out of business and the sector became very much oligopolistic (Holloway 2002). One of the major developments during this period was the horizontal integration between Thompson and Horizon. The merger confirmed Thompson as the market leader, however the price wars have undermined the profitability of the whole sector (Yale 1995). The collapse of International Leisure Group (ILG) the second largest tour operator in 1991 signalled the full impact of the cutthroat nature of the industry (Yale 1995). By the mid 1990s a massive buying spree by Thompson and its rivals has changed the industry dramatically. The top four operators have spent millions buying other smaller tour operators and travel agents in the rush for dominance in the UK market. It all started with the Monopolies and Mergers Commission After several years of investigation, the UK Governments Monopolies and Mergers Commission announced at the start of 1998 that the foreign package holiday market was broadly competitive and served the interests of the customer well (Sharpley 2002). The report did impose three significant rulings on the sector: 2.1.3 Travel agents could no longer make discounts on the price of holidays conditional on the purchase of their preferred travel insurance scheme 2.1.4 Tour operators could no longer impose conditions on travel agents banning them from offering bigger discounts on other companies products 2.1.5 The big integrated companies now had to display their ownership links on the inside and outside of their agency shops and on brochures The MMC said the big operators had to make their ownership links more transparent. For example, Thomson Travel Group had to ensure that its travel agency chain Lunn Poly clearly stated its ownership links in its high street shops. The ruling of MMC meant the big companies were going ahead with more acquisitions (Holloway 2002: 227-231) 3.0Â  Structure of the travel and tourism industry 3.1 Structure The tour operating sector in the UK travel industry is dominated by the four big players- Airtours PLC, Thompson Travel Group, Thomas Cook and First Choice Holidays PLC. Between them they control 60% of the market (Sharpley 2002). To be a tour operator a licence (ATOL) is needed from the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). An operator buys aircraft seats, hotel accommodation and other services or products required to make up a package holiday and sells them to the general public, traditionally through the travel agent but nowadays also directly to the public by various means including the internet. They make these purchases off principals in bulk, which generates economies of scale, thus making savings, which can be passed on, to the customer (Holloway 2002). The essential link in the process of selling holiday products is the brochure, which communicates the product to the customer, but as mentioned the Internet is becoming increasingly important. The barriers to entry are low, however it is very hard to compete with big tour operators. To survive it is essential to concentrate on a niche market or buy market share through integration (Sharpley 2002). The current structure of UK tour operating as mentioned by Sharpley (2002) is characterised by: 3.1.1 An elite group of about 10 vertically and horizontally integrated tour operators who collectively account 70 percent of the air holiday market. This group includes big players like Airtours and Thompson who are mass tourism operators. 3.1.2 A central group of established medium sized operators who have a strong niche market presence. They carry 100,000 to 300,000 passengers a year, however in recent years these companies have been taken over by big players for example Direct Holidays is now part of Airtours. 3.1.3 A very large number of small but specialised operators who carry less than 100,000 passengers a year. These operators focus on specific markets or destination. (Sharpley 2002:76). 3.2 Integration in tour operating In November 1996 Thomson and Airtours were referred to the Mergers and Monopolies Commission as part of an investigation covering the entire holiday industry. The investigation focused on vertical integration and whether travel agents sell their own holidays in preference to those of other operators or control their domination of the package holiday industry to control supply and fix prices. A further issue that was considered was brochure racking and switch selling, that is whether the larger travel agents such as Lunn Poly were giving preference to their own parent company when displaying brochures and selling holidays (Hudson et al 2001). Smaller tour operators were complaining that they were not getting a fair deal at the travel agents who were owned or linked to the larger operators. Integration both vertical and horizontal became more common with big tour operators after the Monopolies and Mergers Commission investigation into the travel industry. The outcome of the enquiry, which was announced in December 1997, effectively gave a green light to the big operators to go on their spending spree (Holloway 2002). 3.2.1 Cases of horizontal integration Horizontal integration is acquiring a company across the same level of chain distribution; the first focus of the major operators was on buying up other tour operators. Thomson bought smaller but profitable companies such as upmarket tour operator Simply Travel and Magic Travel Group. Airtours acquired companies such as Panorama Holidays while First Choice bought up medium-sized rival Unijet and long-haul specialist Hayes and Jarvis. Meanwhile, Thomas Cook bought Flying Colours Leisure Group, which operates Club 18-30 and Sunset Holidays and merged with Carlson Leisure Group (Sharpley 2002). After acquiring smaller tour operators the attention turned to securing distribution for the tour operators new, enlarged portfolio. Thomson acquired smaller, regional travel agent chains such as Scottish travel agency chain Sibbald Travel and South Wales chain The Travel House. Airtours bought up Travelworld and did a deal with an independent travel agency chain, Advantage Travel Centres, to sell its holidays through 350 of their branches. Thomas Cook literally doubled its travel agency chain overnight when it merged with Carlson Leisure Group and took over the Carlson Worldchoice (Holloway 2002). 3.2.2 Cases of Vertical integration Vertical integration is the common ownership of tour operator, airline and travel agent (or any two of these) it is a significant feature among the leading tour operators and travel agents and has increased in recent years. Prior to the late 1980s only Thompson among todays leading companies had been fully vertically integrated-with the purchase of its airline Britannia in 1965 and Lunn Poly in 1972 (Yale 1995:24-26). Among the leading organizations, the vertical integration picture is set out in appendix 1. 3.2.3 Impacts of horizontal and vertical integration on smaller independent operators In theory horizontal integration leads to economies of scale, this means that due to bulk purchases and shared marketing cost saving techniques are utilised. The cost savings enables tour operators to become more competitive, allowing it to develop better range of products at a cheaper rate (Yale 1995). Big tour operators have used integration as means of competitive strategy to gain greater immediate market shares as mentioned earlier in the report (See part 2.1.2 Thompson merger with Horizon). The vertically integrated groups now supply a large proportion of the tourism market. Vertically integrated operators have the market power to put competitors (especially smaller independent ones) at a disadvantage, for example in de racking or threatening to de rack their brochures in an attempt to negotiate larger commissions, by pressurising operators not to supply independent travel agents on better terms, or by pushing their own holidays through in house incentive schemes (Yale 1995). In many industries it is the role of small or medium size enterprises to develop new niche market segments, which if successful are taken over by larger organisations. This has certainly been the case in tour operating as the major groups have sought to diversify into higher yield specialist markets. In a report by Mintel (2001) the Association of Independent Tour Operators ruefully reflect that many of their former members are now part of larger vertically integrated groups. 3.2.4 Independent tour operator survival The keys to success are considered to be specialisation and exclusivity, with distinguishable niche products, and tailored personal service. These holidays are generally sold through direct sell advertising in newspapers and magazines, with high levels of repeat business and recommendation. However, AITO has also formed an alliance with independent retail agents under the banner of CARTA the Campaign for Real Travel Agents- who position themselves as genuine travel consultants as opposed to the holiday shops of the major groups. The big threat to the independents from the consolidation of tour operating is the fight for seat allocations. 4.0 Market Sizing Trends Despite the impact of the tragic events of 11th September 2001 on the outbound tourism market, expenditure overseas by UK residents (excluding fares), the number of UK residents visits overseas, and the number of nights spent overseas, all increased in 2001. The value of the outbound market including fares decreased in 2001, reflecting price pressure on fares as a result of increased competition (see appendix 2). This was accentuated by the development of low-cost airlines and the impact of 11th September. Prior to 11th September, the market was growing as it had since the Gulf War and the recession in 1991 (Keynote Travel Agents Overseas Tour Operators 2002). Keynote (2002) has stated that growth of outbound tourism from the UK has been greater than the world average during the 1990s. This is because Britons are getting better off. Many who could not previously afford overseas holiday can now do so. Also airfares are becoming less expensive, due mainly to competition and bigger airlines. There are also many other countries that are developing their tourist industry and the choice of where to go is getting bigger every year. Other trends included different channels of distribution such as the Internet and other forms of new media and digital technology.